Motorolas Tools And Techniques Of Tqm Information Technology Essay

Motorolas Tools And Techniques Of Tqm Information Technology Essay This research paper is made about Motorola Inc. America, and describes how Motorola started its operation like an ordinary firm and reached to the zenith of excellence by developing and implementing new quality control techniques. Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) is the core technique of continuous improvement program of TQM which was first developed and implemented by Motorola inc. Further more, it tells about how and why firm ought to adopt the Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) techniques for their success. The data integrated in this research is exclusively presented by the help of various informative sources. Other than focusing the Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) program the research also tells about why and how the organizations continuously strive to capture largest market share in tight completive environment by using different tools of total quality management. Overall the research embeds the importance of total quality management, its significance to gain a competitive edge and remarkable breakthroughs in the history of organizations. Motorola is a well known American multinational telecommunication company based in Schaumburg, Illinois. It is the manufacturer of wireless telephone handsets, and also designs and sells wireless network infrastructure equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers. They have achieved a high level of success throughout the world by being innovative and promoting creativity among their employees. This companys prosperity is dependent upon developing cutting edge technology and in new product design. To accomplish these goals, Motorola actively encourages employees to generate creative ideas, challenge conventional thinking, and look towards the future. Motorolas home and broadcast network products include set-top boxes, digital video recorders, and network equipment used to enable video broadcasting, computer telephony, and high-definition television. Motorola uses TQM techniques to be successful and improve employee creativity within the organization. Some of these methods include employee empowerment and risk taking, training and education techniques, participative management, and team collaboration. The innovation of TQM technique is one of the fundamental stand of Motorola Inc. Motorolas business and government customers consist mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems used to build private networks and public safety communications systems like Astro and Dimetra. Motorolas handset division is now focusing on smartphones using Googles open-source Android mobile operating system. Motorola Vision Statement: Our history is rich. Our future is dynamic. We are Motorola and the spirit of invention is what drives us. Motorola Mission Statement: We are a global communications leader powered by a passion to invent and an unceasing commitment to advance the way the world connects. Our communication solutions allow people, businesses and governments to be more connected and more mobile. Motorola Slogan: Hello Moto Motorola has a successfully working TQM process. Motorolas fundamental objective is Total Customer Satisfaction. They have won the Baldrige award and are corporate leaders in TQM. HISTORY Motorola started in Chicago, Illinois as Galvin Manufacturing Corporation in 1928 with its first product being a battery eliminator. The name Motorola was adopted in 1930, and the word has been used as a trademark since the 1930s. Founders Paul Galvin and Joseph Galvin came up with the name Motorola when the company started manufacturing car radios in 1930; the name is a combination of motor and the suffix ola. Many of Motorolas Products have been radio-related, starting with a battery eliminator for radios, through the first walkie-talkie in the world in 1940, defense electronics, cellular infrastructure equipment, and mobile phone manufacturing. In 1943, Motorola went public and in 1947, the name changed to its present name. The present logo was introduced in 1955. In 1952, Motorola opened its first international subsidiary in Toronto, Canada to produce radios and televisions. In 1953, Motorola established the Motorola Foundation to support leading universities in the United States. In 1955, years after Motorola started its research and development laboratory in Phoenix, Arizona to research new solid-state technology, Motorola introduced the worlds first commercial high-power germanium-based transistor. Beginning in 1958 with Explorer 1, Motorola provided radio equipment for most NASA space-flights for decades including during the 1969 moon landing. In 1960, Motorola introduced the worlds first large-screen (19-inch), transistorized, cordless portable television. In 1963, Motorola, which had very successfully begun making televisions in 1947 introduced the worlds first truly rectangular color TV picture tube which quickly became the industry standard. In 1974, Motorola sold its television business to the Japan-based parent company of Panasonic. In 1976, Motorola moved to its present headquarters in Schaumburg. In September 1983, the firm made history when the FCC approved the DynaTAC 8000X telephone, the worlds first-only commercial cellular device. By 1998, cell phones accounted for two-thirds of Motorolas gross revenue. The company was also strong in semiconductor technology, including integrated circuits used in computers. Motorola has been the main supplier for the microprocessors used in Atari ST, Commodore Amiga, Color Computer, and Apple Macintosh personal computers. The PowerPC family was developed with IBM and in a partnership with Apple (known as the AIM alliance). Motorola also has a diverse line of communication products, including satellite systems, digital cable boxes and modems. In 1986, Motorola invented the Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) quality improvement process. This became a global standard, in 1990. In June 2000, Motorola and Cisco supplied the worlds first commercial GPRS cellular network. In 2002 Motorola introduced the worlds first wireless cable modem gateway which combined a high-speed cable modem router with an Ethernet switch and wireless home gateway. In 2003, Motorola introduced the worlds first handset to combine a Linux operating system and Java technology with full PDA functionality. MOTOROLAS SIX SIGMA PROGRAM Motorola invented the Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) quality improvement process in 1986 and in 1988, Motorola Corp. became one of the first companies to receive the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. The award strives to identify those  excellent firms that are worthy role models for other businesses. One of Motorolas innovations that attracted a great deal of attention was its Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) program. Motorola Saved $22 Billion from 1986 to 2009, reflecting hundreds of individual successes in all Motorola business areas including: Sales and Marketing Product design Manufacturing Customer service Transactional processes Supply chain management. To quantitatively measure the performances Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) uses statistical analysis. That process can involve manufacturing, business practices, products, or service. To be defined as Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) means that the process does not produce more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO) which translates to 99.9997% efficiency. A Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) defect is considered anything that can cause customer dissatisfaction, such as being outside of customer specifications. A Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) opportunity is the total number of chances for a defect to occur. Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) Concept The Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) concept was developed by Motorola in 1986 with the stated goal of improving manufacturing processes and reducing product defects and variation. Building on earlier quality improvement methods, Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) assumes the following: Ongoing efforts to achieve stable, predictable process results are essential for business success Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled Sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire organization Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) Implementation In order to achieve Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) performance, the causes of manufacturing and business process defects and variation must be identified and eliminated. Two Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) sub-methodologies were developed for this purpose: DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) and DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify). DMAIC is used to improve existing processes that are below specification; DMADV is used to develop new processes or products at Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) levels. Borrowing martial arts terminology, a key innovation of Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) was the creation of a professional quality management hierarchy. This structure works to involve all levels of the organization in the success of Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) projects: Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other top management Champions, drawn from upper management, are responsible for Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) implementation across the organization Master Black Belts, identified by champions or by executive leadership, function as in-house coaches, mentors, and trainers; 100% of their time is devoted to Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) to ensure business and leadership alignment Black Belts focus on the application of Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) methodology to specific projects; 100% of their time is devoted to Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) Green Belts are involved with Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) implementation along with other job responsibilities Lean Sigma is a current industry trend in which a process is made lean through efficiency improvements before Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) is applied to reduce variation. Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) Calculation In order to calculate Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™), the engineers at Motorola set up a scale to evaluate the quality of a process based on these defect calculations. At the top of the scale is Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™), which equates to 3.4 DPMO, or 99.9997% defect-free. In other words, if you have a process running at Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™), youve almost eliminated all defects its nearly perfect. Of course, most processes dont run at Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™). They run at Five Sigma, Four Sigma or worse. Heres the full scale to get an appreciation of the numbers involved. The calculation of a sigma level is based on the number of defects per million opportunities (DPMO). The formula to calculate DPMO is: DPMO = If, for example, there are 38 defects, 10,000 units and one defect opportunity/unit, the results would be: DPMO 3,800 Defects (%) 0.38 Yield (%) 99.62 Process sigma 4.17 Motorola and other software have devices several soft wares that easily calculate sigma of a process or activity. The table given below maps the Sigma and %accuracy. Sigma Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO) % Accuracy One Sigma 691,500 30.85% Two Sigma 308,500 69.15% Three Sigma 66,810 93.32% Four Sigma 6,210 99.38% Five Sigma 233 99.977% Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) 3.4 99.9997% Seven Sigma 0.020 99.999998% LSL lower sigma level USL: upper sigma level Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) Benefits Achieving measurable and quantifiable financial goals (cost reduction/profit increase) with Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) projects sets this methodology apart from other quality improvement tactics. Financial benefits of potential process improvement projects are used to help prioritize the projects; these benefits are then reassessed during the analyze phase of both DMAIC and DMADV and verified in the control phase of DMAIC and the verify phase of DMADV. Closely linking Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) projects to a companys bottom line gives everyone in the organization a stake in the success of these projects. It also helps identify projects that involve critical-to-quality aspects of the process and will provide substantial process improvement. Scores of organizations continue to improve their performance by taking advantage of their Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) process. Since Motorola implemented its Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) process in 1987, their results have included: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sales growth of greater than 300 percent. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Employee productivity growth of more than 12.3 percent per year. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Elimination of more than 99.7 percent of in-process defects. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reduction by 84 percent of costs associated with poor quality. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Savings of $11 billion in manufacturing costs. By the late 1990s, approximately two-thirds of Fortune 500 companies had started Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) projects; as of 2009, Motorola had reported more than $19 billion in savings as a result of Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™). In addition to significant financial gain, Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) provides organizations with the methodology and structure to make decisions based on verifiable data and statistical analysis and thereby to achieve measurable quality improvements in manufacturing and business processes. Six Sigma (6à Ã†â€™) projects are truly a win-win situation as product quality is greatly improved while product defects and variation are reduced, employees are meaningfully involved in the outcome of the projects, company profitability is measurably increased, and customer loyalty and satisfaction are significantly enhanced. PLAN-DO-CHECK-ACT (PDCA) Motorolas PDCA is a problem solving process and consist of a Plan to identify and analyze the problem, Do, to develop and implement solutions, Check to evaluate the results, and Act to standardize the solution, capitalizing on opportunities. Demings Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) Cycle Plan select and analyze the problem Do implement the solution Check check the results of the change Act act to standardize the solution for the long-term PARETO CHART The Pareto chart is a very useful tool which Motorola uses to separate the important from the trivia. The chart, first promoted by Dr. Joseph Juran, is named after Italian economist/sociologist Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923). He had the insight to recognize that in the real world a minority of causes lead to the majority of problems. This is known as the Pareto principle. Pick a category, and the Pareto principle will usually hold. For example, Motorola has found that all the kinds of problems that can be named are only about 20% of them who produce 80% of the product defects; 80% of the cost associated with the defects will be assignable to only about 20% of the total number of defect types occurring. By Examining the elements of this cost it is revealed that once again 80% of the total defect costs spring from only about 20% of the cost elements. A Pareto chart became very handful for Motorola by the discovery of these ratios and has helped in the segmentation of the customers on the bases of imperative problems and opportunities. CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAMS Motorola Cause-And-Effect team typically uses a cause-and-effect diagram to identify and isolate causes of a problem. The technique was developed by the late Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, a noted Japanese quality expert, so sometimes the diagram is called an Ishikawa diagram. Motorola has developed the software of cause-and-effect diagram which tells about how internal or external event affects the organizational processes. It is the only tool that is not based on statistics. This chart is simply a means of visualizing how the various factors associated with a process affect the processes output. HISTOGRAM Histograms are used by most of the companies including Motorola to chart frequency of occurrence. How often does something happen? Any discussion of histograms must begin with an understanding of the two kinds of data commonly associated with processes: attributes and variables data. An attribute is something that the output product of the process either has or does not have. An electronic assembly either had wiring errors or it did not. For Example, in a process used in making Motorola electrical resistors would use the scale of electrical resistance in ohms; another process might use a weight scale, and so on. Variables data are something that results from measurement. EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT The history of Motorola reflects that it has strived to ensure continuous improvement and lasting success by following fundamental principles that emphasize change. One principle is known as leadership of renewal, which stresses the need for change to stay ahead of the advancing technology market. Motorola has tried to create a corporate structure that can anticipate and manage change in order to gain a competitive advantage. A key aspect of accomplishing this is to teach managers and lower level employees to take a proactive approach toward change (Winston). Another standard they adhere to is called renewal of leadership. At Motorola it is important that employees have freedom to take risks and utilize creativity. Therefore, Motorola looks for managers who can inspire and empower subordinates rather than inhibit their creative freedom through rigid authority or control. Their renewal of leadership system uses an intricate 360-degree feedback program for all divisions of the company. This allows every worker to get opinions about their strengths and areas needing improvement from peers, managers, subordinates, and customers. Motorola also has a structure that encourages the rotation of managers from all levels of the organization. This is done to reenergize managers and ensure that problems will continually be looked at from a fresh perspective (Winston). An essential concept the Motorola Corporation advocates to their employees is to think the unthinkable. The notion here is to think differently and find innovative solutions to any type of problem encountered. To encourage this initiative, Motorola passes power on to their employees to make critical decisions and tells them it is okay to make mistakes. Open to new ideas, devoted to nurturing, and encouraging those who question the oldest assumptions and propose the boldest changesthese are enduring characteristics of Motorola (High Performance Working Research Project). Motorola also encourages their employees to exhibit desired performance through rewards and positive reinforcement. Counter-intuitive thinkingthe thought process of standing against the crowd and challenging conventional wisdomis prized, encouraged, and rewarded. In fact, it is the basis on which Motorolas success is founded (Winston). Motorola is very good about giving their employees a high level of autonomy and encouraging independent thinking. This results in a greater sense of confidence and creative freedom while on the job. In order for workers to consistently apply the values that Motorola preaches, they must be properly motivated. Thus, Motorola offers many extrinsic rewards to employees that can make them feel appreciated and motivate them to be successful. The company provides extensive training each year for all employees, tuition reimbursement for attending school, sports and recreation facilities, and promotions based on achievement rather than tenure (Inside Motorola: Benefits). These incentives, along with competitive salaries, can help workers feel a greater sense of commitment and purpose for their jobs. It is also common for people to be more productive and creative when they are valued and feel comfortable in their surroundings. The preceding examples illustrate why so many employees view Motorola as a first class organization and are passionate about their careers. BENCHMARKING Benchmarking is often applied to such business practices as payroll, payables, customer billing, receivables, information technology, purchasing, and inventory management. Despite the various definitions of benchmarking, the goal is always the same: to identify best practices. The benchmarking allowed Motorola to climb the learning curve quickly by benefiting from the experience of other companies. According to Greg Hackett, founder and president of The Hackett Group, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦you get to steal the learning curve of othersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.  [i]   Ultimately, benchmarking results in more efficient processes which, in turn, can generate substantial cost savings. According to Mark Krueger, managing director of AnswerThink Consulting, cost reductions can range from 15% to 45%. The basic premise behind benchmarking is that to deliver quality, you need to compare your business against the best in class business and then make changes to your operation so that quality is enhanced. Benchmarking is the process of determining who is the very best, who sets the standard, and what that standard is. JUST-IN-TIME (JIT) Just-in-Time is method of fast response to customers used my Motorola. The Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing is, to a large extent, based upon a system of total quality management, as well as strong emphasis upon training and involvement of workers in all phases of manufacturing in Motorolas workshops. JIT is particularly conducive for some areas of manufacturing and viable for other manufacturing control systems too. JIT utilizes a full involvement and method of manufacturing, emphasizing such aspects as order to delivery, eliminating waste, enforcing problem-solving and continuous improvement, total quality management, parallel processing, purchasing, and others. The essential philosophy behind JIT manufacturing has largely to do with competitive effectiveness. TAGUCHI CONCEPTS Pioneered by Dr. Genichi Taguchi whose fundamental thinking was to develop products that hold up to adverse conditions (i.e, Motorola telephones are designed to be dropped because this commonly happens). Motorola apples this quality principle to service, they know that they should plan for the worst when designing our service. When the adverse condition occurs, they should maintain the quality in service. CONCLUSION TQM is frequently touted as the necessary next step in the evolution of modern business management. In theory, it is often hard to argue with the logic of the quality focus advocated by the TQM approach. Unfortunately, TQM initiatives often fail when implementation begins. The failure of TQM is largely due to the fact that all the philosophical, strategic, and measurement dimensions of the TQM concept are not adequately addressed. These three dimensions of TQM should be stressed at different levels of the management hierarchy to varying degrees. The responsibility for establishing the philosophical dimension of TQM falls mostly on top management so that the emphasis of quality can be fully integrated into an organizations missions. The essential elements of TQM are then incorporated into strategic decisions for various functions of the organization. Functional management teams within the same organization should be allowed to define quality that is most appropriate for their function al areas. Based on the specific functional, working definitions of quality, it is possible to develop a comprehensive quality measurement system capable of capturing the vital information relating to quality. Data can then be analyzed and aggregated when reported to the upper level management for decision making and continuous improvement.

The theory of employee relations Essay

Employment relations Introduction            Conventionally, employees are deemed to strike for various reasons. From scholarly works, a strike is defined as suspension in production as the workers and their employers engage in the possible way of dividing the surplus that has been achieved within their relationship. (Metcalf and David, 1993) From modern perspective, strikes involves at least one of the arguing parties having some private information that they do not want the other party to get hold of about this suspected surplus. In empirical perception, strikes are generally considered to be rare. From the findings of economists; they have concluded that strike cases are usually rampant during the business cycle peak, and strikes duration is considered to be limited when the economy is strong. Strike activities are evidently influenced by legislative environment, particularly that legislation that restricts use of replacement of workers (Blyton and Turnbull, 2004).            An employee’s labor value is greater compared to the wage provided by the employer, that is after considering the relationship of employment. This in return provides an opportunity for rise of surplus that is to be divided among the employee and the employer. Thus, a strike is considered as the act of suspending production as the two sides gets into an argument on how to divide this surplus amicably. The guardian, â€Å"yes striking is a human right,† this command is given by the international treaties voluntarily accepted by British successive governments; this same treaties are being bound by the United Kingdom (The Guardian, 2011).            According to the guardian, British government has been directed by the international community on human rights to relax the already existing restrictions and cease treating lawful strikes as a breach rather than suspension of employment contract to the employees. If the British law intersect with the international obligations, then it would not be easy for the bully employers to unilaterally suspensions of the striking employees (The Guardian, 2011).            Mills and Quinn (1982) In an ideal competitive situation, employment surplus is not real: individual employers compete with other employers, who are concerned with biding salary and wages to the point when it matches employee laborer value, also the individual workers will too compete with other fellow workers who tend to bid their remunerations until they meet the one that has been scheduled by the respective employers. From this assumption an employee who tends to strike they are immediately replaced by other equivalent works who meet the demands of the potential employer (Brenner, Aaron, Benjamin and Ness, 2009).            The worker who is willing to take this bid takes the day. This situation also happens to the employers, also employers who try to reduce the worker’s salary and wage; they will receive a set back as the potential workers will move to the employer who is ready and willing to provide that remuneration that the worker is willing to work for. Through this, the workers are thus able to replace their former employers with other favorable employers giving out competitive prices (Zeidler and Frank, 1968).            Lambert and Bartlett (2005) Evidently, it is true that strikes will happen if and only if there is an extra income from production that both the employer and the worker see that it is worth fighting for, hence strike will never occur in a noncompetitive market of labor. Despite the strikes being human rights, they also need to be viewed with a credible mind. Through a sound mind one is able to make a viable decision that will solve the whole mess amicably. This will need personnel who will explain the likelihood of a strike occurring and then recommending means of settlement, thus there could not be any wastes brought about by strikes (Hicks paradox of 1932). Critically building on Hicks paradox, we are enabled to suggest that the two parties are fighting for some crucial information that each want to keep especially the employer. Apparently the associated wastage realized through strikes is considered a cost of trying to obtain this information especially on the p art of the employee as they initially lack this important information that they know will relieve them the bondage of underpayment (Rosenbloom and Joshua, 1996).            To have a clear understanding of these analogies it is important to get a glimpse of what the workers strike theories hold for better explanation. There are various theories that will help to give a reason as to why really workers in the essential services need to go on strike for their grievance to be hard, by either group understanding or through their respective Unions. Unions go on strike when they are sure that the employer is to meet their demands without undergoing any financial crisis. These theories are crucial as they are the ones that give these unions a bargaining ground as illustrated below (Barrett and Boyd, 1914). Institutionalization theory            This particular theory is attributed two gentlemen Hartman and Ross according to Bean perspective (Bean, 1994) the theory asserts institutional mechanisms of negotiating, such as common bargaining protocols helps to reduce the supposed conflicts that are bound to occur due to the strike. Olafsson (1982), perspective about the theory, suggest that for highly developed industrial systems relations are commonly associated with reduced conflict levels.            Some countries that believe in this theory have been associated with reduced strike conflict level these countries include: Norway, Sweden, and Denmark are some of the singled out as the unique examples the countries that have developed industrial peace model, associated by centralized movement of labor, they also have comprehensive means of negotiations, and lastly they have the legal regulations that are effective in controlling strike activities and disputes procedures.            Hale (2008) from the study of conducted by Harmatan and Ross determined the factors that influenced strike activities in countries of study. The study found that the countries that have stable labor unified movements that are recognized and willingly accepted and with intensively developed common bargaining protocols are the ones that experience industrial peace. Hartman and Ross concluded centralized bargaining systems minimize levels of industrial conflicts in the field of essential services delivery. This is due to the claim of the two that employers and workers organization are at a point to put real behavioral limits within their respective members. Implicit or Relational contract theory            Implicit or relational theory, asserts that there exist a contract between worker’s and employer Unions, the theory is based in an infinitely recurring practice with imperfect monitoring. Kelly (2002) has it that, conflict is unavoidable results of informational asymmetries. The various resolutions of conflicts, strikes slow down, dismissal, low morel, and resignations are not essentials by themselves ingredients of this theory. For instance the strikes will seem to have a zero impact generally under particular configurations, as the conflict is present, but assumes another form.            Blyton and Turnbull (2004) indicates that the high efforts and the high pay initiatives agreements between unions and the respective employer is possible to be supported â€Å"Public Perfect Nash† equilibrium of a recurring event. If these particular players are deemed to be patient enough, just at the cost with random reversions for inefficient series of actions, through which strikes and inflexible wages, or outsourcing and slowdown is bound to take place. This theory suggest that at equilibrium, the respective unions goes on strike simply when the provided wage has been considered to be too low and the exact state nature reality, considered information by the employer to be private and has never been revealed to the workers’ union. Hence, this behavior is turned to be rational in a recurring interaction framework; this eventually causes necessary cooperation in the good times. Principal Agency theory            Johnson and Ashenfelter model suggests that strikes happens only when the salary expectations of the file and the rank do not meet at a common ground with what the prospective employer is ready to pay their staff. In case the union directors present a low salary contract for reviewing. In the situations when the file and the rank’s wage expectation are high, then the rank and the file are regarded with an attempt to selling out to that responsible management. When the above mention statement happens, instead of risk dissension the workers union leaders would prefer to strike internally (Blyton and Paul, 2004).            The major aim of an internal strike is to convince the employees belonging to the union that the wage they are expecting is not possible. According to Hale (2008) â€Å"the basic function of a strike is to square up the membership’s wage expectations with what the firm is willing and ready to pay the workers† the implication the theory is that the union’s salary demand should come down during a strike time. From another perspective this theory receives some critics on the ground that the wage needs are merely based on factor of conjecture, instead of being derived from the bargaining process (Metcalf and David, 1993). The theory of private information            As it has been outlined from the above discussion, the employer usually holds some crucial information that normally interests the worker about their working conditions, especially the payment part. This theory thus states that strikes are illustrated well by this private information in regard to the critical aspect important in reaching an agreement, for instance the firm’s willingness for payment (Metcalf and David, 1993).            Why do the workers have to strike? According to the theory of private information, workers only go on strike because this is the only credible means through which they are able to communicate the so called private information. The theory also claims that a company with great willingness to compensate their workers does it with high salary without the employees going to a strike. However, this is also true that the company with low interest of settling the worker, they end up paying the workers low wages because they are ready receive the strike and its impacts. The theory is crucial in the application in strikes when is considered to be bilateral monopoly setting, through this the employees’ union and the firm bargain with information that is asymmetrical, or when the informational conflict is between leaders union, file, and the rank. Form this theoretical information is worth noting that private information is never verified at low cost among other theorie s.            Employees do not strike only for economic reasons; they can also strike in demand of working conditions improvement, or with aim of mutual aid, and protection of the workers in another union. This statement elaborate a factor called job satisfaction within the employees which can be defined as that emotional condition that come as a result of appraisal of an employee’s job. The statement suggest workers develops negative of positive attitudes towards their work or specific sections of the job mainly through, an internal state of mind of respective individuals, generally it is that consideration of our belief, behaviors, and our feelings. When job satisfaction is positive, this can result from favorable working terms workers are considered to be active. Workers activeness is determined from the output of production, motivated workers produces quality services because they are able to utilize fully their potentials. Unmotivated workers results in under product ion as they are not willing to utilize their potentials for the benefit of the employer. The outcomes of strikes in the essential services sector            Despite of strike being a human right through which they can air their grievance, strikes are associated with adverse effects that come aftermath the strike has taken place. The results can either be positive, that is the demands of the workers are met and sometimes the results will be negative not favoring the claims of the striking workers. So the striking workers are always prepared for any of these twoutcomes in their efforts to manages and influence the consideration of their needs being addressed with human touch from their employers through the union or at times through the individual employees alone.            Considering the 1919 the General Winning strike according to the Canadianonline.com, it resulted to adverse effects. Among them, the metal workers were compelled to go back to work without a dime increase in their pay that they were demanding, this sounds like they just wasted their time. The employees had to be sent to jail, the foreign workers were deported, and hundreds of others had to be demoted. Seven ring leaders of the strike received a two years conviction for conspiracy of trying to overthrow the government. Apart from these negative results still something good came out of it. Eleven of the labor candidates who won the seats out of these four of them were the strike leaders.            The General Winning Strike made strike in Canada to receive a collective ground for bargaining after almost 20 years. This suggests that within these 20 years the working condition in Canada was compared to hell since both the unions and the workers had no power to bargain for their wage increase even when there was a surplus with the scope of production. Though this the economy of Winnipeg greatly went down for a long time. This also resulted in a social stratification that is the north was classified as the working class and the south as the Troy state            Another area of essential service sector let us consider the teaching sector. Brison, David and Smith (2006) form the reports that evaluated the impacts of the Ontario teachers’ strike of 1975 to early 1976. Studies were in the respective schools lagged behind because they started just after the end of the strike and also there was lack of cooperation from the teachers. Though the study conducted found no effect that was no effect on the change of student grades. The other study in the same subject also came out with different suggestions, concerning student’s attitudes towards their teachers. Surprisingly the strike did not affect the attitude towards their respective teachers.            From the third study that was concerned with the school attendance resulted into a null hypothesis. The rate of learner’s dropout was evident from the results that were obtained especially from grade 9 to grade 13. The study concluded that a strike has an impact on student dropout and also on movement to postsecondary education. Ahmed and Syed (1989) Cumulative the strikes are regarded to have negative outcomes on the academic performance of the students especially in the senior grades, particularly in learning such subjects like science and mathematics where learning involves summation of knowledge. Even though the strikes did not have any focus on teachers’ effects from external sources it is realized that after the strike event the teachers became less idealistic in regarding teaching profession as a calling but rather a job just like any other (Matheson and Victor,2006). Recommendations and conclusion            From the above reviews, there is a revelation that there is a strong relationship between strikes actions and job satisfaction. In the countries that have high job satisfaction, strike incidences are limited or never exist and the reverse is true for other countries. The studies show that low industrial conflict levels are associated with greatly developed industrial relation systems. Among the recognized countries experiencing the benefit of industrial peace are Finland, Sweden, and Norway since that have unified and stable labor movements, in addition to these they also have a collective platform of bargaining that are accepted by the employers.            This hence recommends that each country must try to have greatly developed systems in the industrial relations, also should have a well designed collective bargaining policies which has to be recognized and then accepted by the works across the labor sector and also the government and the employers must accept these terms. There is a need then for the country to have constant to review conditions of the worker to match the current economic situation with this review the workers and the employers will not engage in a fight for the surplus production.            The authorities also have a moral responsibility of ensuring that there are annual forums that joins the employer and the workers with their respective ministries to discuss the current issues affecting the various parties with the hope of addressing this issues at the preliminary before cropping up to create unwanted strikes. Timely strikes aversions are crucial, since it helps to reduce the possible social, political, and economic results of the strike. This calls upon the government responsible ministries to be aware of the challenges that the workers can face.            Unions should act strongly to fight the policy of temporal workers replacement. Replacing workers reduce the strength of having a common bargaining for their demands. Once the employer has replaced the striking employee, production process goes on as usual hence thinking about the servicing worker who is on strike will be a thing that has been put aside for a while. References Blyton, Paull, and Peter Turnbull. The dynamics of employee relations. 3rd ed. Houndmills, Basingstoke,Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Print. Blyton, Paul. The theory of employee relations. na: na, 2004. Print. Brenner, Aaron, Benjamin Day, and Immanuel Ness. The encyclopedia of strikes in American history. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2009. Print. â€Å"Guardians veto bank bill–but not over president.(Economy: Money and its impact).† Iran Times International 7 Jan. 2011, ed, sec. Print. Hale, Dominic. â€Å"International comparisons of labour disputes in 2006.† Economic & Labour Market Review 2.4 (2008): 32-39. Print. Kelly, John E.. Rethinking industrial relations mobilization, collectivism and long waves. Taylor & Francis e-Library ed. London: Routledge, 2002. Print. Metcalf, David, and Jonathan Wadsworth. Do strikes pay? 1992. Print. Metcalf, David H.. New perspectives on industrial disputes. London: Routledge, 1993. Print. Mills, Daniel Quinn. Labor-management relations. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982. Print. Zeidler, Frank P.. Rethinking the philosophy of employee relations in the public service. Chicago: Public Personnel Association, 1968. Print. Ahmed, Syed M.. â€Å"The effects of the joint cost of strikes on strikes in Canadian manufacturing industries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" a test of the Rederà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å";Neumannà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å";Kennan theory.† Applied Economics 21.10 (1989): 1353-1367. Print. Barrett, E. Boyd. Effects of strikes. Dublin: Office of the â€Å"Irish Messenger†, 1914. Print. Brison, David W., and Anthony H. Smith. The effects of Ontario teachers’ strikes on students: summary and integration of three component studies. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education, 1978. Print. Matheson, Victor A.. â€Å"The Effects Of Labour Strikes On Consumer Demand In Professional Sports: Revisited.† Applied Economics 38.10 (2006): 1173-1179. Print. â€Å"Winnipeg General Strike 1919.† About.com Canada Online. Web. 7 Mar. 2014. . Collections of the United Farm Workers of America. Woodbridge, CT: Primary Source Media, 2009. Print. Hain, Peter. Political strikes: the state and trade unionism in Britain. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Viking, 1986. Print. Lambert, Josiah Bartlett. â€Å"If the workers took a notion†: the right to strike and American political development. Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 2005. Print. Report of proceedings at the fourth ordinary Congress of the International Federation of Trade Unions: Held at the â€Å"Grand Palais†, Paris, from August 1st to 6th 1927 ; together with reports of the Conferences of the International Trade Secretariats, and t. Amsterdam: International Federation of Trade Unions, 1927. Print. Rosenbloom, Joshua L.. Strikebreaking and the Labor Market in the United States, 1881-1874. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1996. Print. Source document

Who was Philip Johnson The First Pritzker Laureate

Philip Johnson was a museum director, writer, and, most notably, an architect known for his unconventional designs. His work embraced many influences, from the neoclassicism of Karl Friedrich Schinkel and to the modernism of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Background Born: July 8, 1906, in Cleveland, Ohio Died: January 25, 2005 Full Name: Philip Cortelyou Johnson Education: 1930: Architectural History, Harvard University1943: Architecture, Harvard University Selected Projects 1949: Glass House, New Canaan, CT1958: Seagram Building (with Mies van der Rohe), New York1962: Kline Science Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT1963: Sheldon Museum of Art, University of Nebraska-Lincoln campus1964: NY State Theater, Lincoln Center, New York1970: JFK Memorial, Dallas, Texas1972: Boston Public Library addition1975: Pennzoil Place, Houston, Texas1980: Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, CA1984: ATT Headquarters, New York City1984: Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company, Pittsburgh, PA1984: Transco Tower, Houston, TX1986: 53rd at Third (Lipstick Building), New York City1996: Town Hall, Celebration, Florida Important Ideas International StylePostmodernismNeoclassicism Quotes, In the Words of Philip Johnson Create beautiful things. Thats all.Architecture is surely not the design of space, certainly not the massing or organizing of volumes. These are auxiliary to the main point, which is the organization of procession. Architecture exists only in time.Architecture is the art of how to waste space.All architecture is shelter, all great architecture is the design of space that contains, cuddles, exalts, or stimulates the person in that space.Why reinvent the spoon?The only test for architecture is to build a building, go inside and let it wrap itself around you. Related People Le CorbusierWalter GropiusRichard NeutraLudwig Mies van der Rohe More About Philip Johnson After graduation from Harvard in 1930, Philip Johnson became the first Director of the Department of Architecture at the Museum of Modern Art, New York (1932-1934 and 1945-1954). He coined the term International Style and introduced the work of modern European architects such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier to America. He would later collaborate with Mies van der Rohe on what is considered the most superb skyscraper in North America, the Seagram Building in New York City (1958). Johnson returned to Harvard University in 1940 to study architecture under Marcel Breuer. For his masters degree thesis, he designed a residence for himself, the now famous Glass House (1949), which has been called one of the worlds most beautiful and yet least functional homes. Philip Johnsons buildings were luxurious in scale and materials, featuring expansive interior space and a classical sense of symmetry and elegance. These same traits epitomized corporate Americas dominant role in world markets in prominent skyscrapers for such leading companies as ATT (1984), Pennzoil (1976) and Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company (1984). In 1979, Philip Johnson was honored with the first Pritzker Architecture Prize in recognition of 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums, theaters, libraries, houses, gardens and corporate structures. Learn More Philip Johnsons Contributions To Architecture, commentary by 13 famous architects, New York magazineAcceptance Speech, 1979 Pritzker Architecture Prize, The Hyatt FoundationThe Philip Johnson Tapes: Interviews by Robert A. M. Stern, Monacelli Press, 2008The Architecture of Philip Johnson, 2002

Ewing v. California Supreme Court Case, Arguments, Impact

Ewing v. California (2003) asked the Supreme Court to consider whether harsher sentences imposed under three-strikes laws could be considered cruel and unusual punishment. The court upheld three-strikes, stating that, in the case at hand, the sentence was not â€Å"grossly disproportionate to the crime.† Key Takeaways Gary Ewing was sentenced to 25 years to life under Californias three-strikes law for committing felony grand theft after having at least two other serious or violent felonies on his record.The Supreme Court found that the sentence was not grossly disproportionate to the crime under the Eighth Amendment, which states that Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Facts of the Case In 2000, Gary Ewing attempted to steal three golf clubs, valued at $399 each, from a golf shop in El Segundo, California. He was charged with felony grand theft, the unlawful taking of property valued at over $950. At the time, Ewing was on parole for three burglaries and a robbery that had resulted in a nine-year prison sentence. Ewing had also been convicted of multiple misdemeanors. Grand theft is a wobbler in California, meaning it can be charged as either a felony or a misdemeanor. In Ewings case, the trial court chose to charge him with a felony after reviewing his criminal record, triggering the three-strikes law. He received a sentence of 25 years to life in prison. Ewing appealed. The California Court of Appeals affirmed the decision to charge grand theft as a felony. The Court of Appeals also rejected Ewings claim that the three-strikes law violated his Eighth Amendment protection against cruel and unusual punishment. The Supreme Court of California denied Ewings petition for review and the U.S. Supreme Court granted a writ of certiorari.   Three Strikes Three strikes† is a sentencing doctrine that has been used since the 1990s. The name references the rule in baseball: three strikes and youre out. Californias version of the law, enacted in 1994, could be triggered if someone was convicted of a felony after having been convicted of one or more prior felonies considered serious or violent. Constitutional Issues Are three-strikes laws unconstitutional under the Eighth Amendment? Was Ewing subjected to cruel and unusual punishment when he received a harsher penalty for his grand theft felony conviction? Arguments An attorney representing Ewing argued that his sentence was grossly disproportionate to the crime. While Californias three-strikes law was reasonable and could result in a proportionate sentence,† it had not in Ewing’s case. The attorney relied on Solem v. Helm (1983), in which the court had looked only at the crime at hand, and not the prior convictions, when deciding whether a life without parole sentence was cruel and unusual punishment. He argued that Ewing should not have been given 25 years to life for a â€Å"wobbler† crime. An attorney on behalf of the state argued that Ewing’s sentence was justified under the three-strikes law. Three strikes, the attorney argued, marked a legislative move away from rehabilitative punishment and towards incapacitation of repeat offenders. The Court should not second-guess legislative decisions to favor different theories of punishment, he argued. Majority Opinion Justice Sandra Day OConnor delivered the 5-4 decision on behalf of the majority. The decision focused on the Eighth Amendment proportionality clause which states, Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inï ¬â€šicted.† Justice O’Connor noted  that the Court had issued prior rulings on Eighth Amendment proportionality. In Rummel v. Estelle (1980), the court ruled that a three-time offender could be given life without parole for obtaining about $120 under  Ã¢â‚¬Å"false pretenses, under a  Texas  recidivism statute. In Harmelin v. Michigan, (1991) the Supreme Court upheld a lifetime sentence leveled against a first-time offender who had been caught with over 650 grams of cocaine. Justice O’Connor applied a set of proportionality principles first laid out by Justice Anthony Kennedy in his Harmelin v. Michigan concurrence. Justice O’Connor noted that three-strikes laws were an increasingly popular legislative trend, aimed at deterring repeat offenders. She cautioned that when there is a legitimate penological goal, the court should not act as a â€Å"super legislature† and â€Å"second guess policy choices. Imprisoning a man for 25 years to life for stealing golf clubs is grossly disproportionate punishment, Justice OConnor wrote. However, the court must take into account his criminal history, before making a judgment. Ewing stole the clubs while on probation for at least two other serious felonies. Justice O’Connor wrote that the sentence could be justified because the State of California has a public-safety interest in incapacitating and deterring recidivist felons. The Court did not consider the fact that grand theft is a wobbler to be significant. Grand theft is a felony until the court deems otherwise, Justice OConnor wrote. Trial courts have the discretion to downgrade, but given Ewings criminal history, the judge chose not to give him a lighter sentence. That decision did not violate Ewings Eighth Amendment protection, according to the Court. Justice O’Connor wrote: To be sure, Ewings sentence is a long one. But it reflects a rational legislative judgment, entitled to deference, that offenders who have committed serious or violent felonies and who continue to commit felonies must be incapacitated. Dissenting Opinion Justice Stephen G. Breyer dissented, joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg, John Paul Stevens, and David Souter. Justice Breyer listed three characteristics that could help the Court determine whether a sentence was proportional: the time the offender will likely spend in prisonthe criminal conduct and circumstances surrounding itcriminal history The fact that Ewing’s latest crime was not violent means that his conduct should not have been treated the same as if it was, Justice Breyer explained. Justice Stevens also dissented,  joined by Ginsburg, Souter, and Breyer. In his separate dissent, he argued that the Eighth Amendment expresses a broad and basic proportionality principle that takes into account all of the justifications for penal sanctions. Impact Ewing v. California was one of two cases that challenged the constitutionality of three-strikes laws. Lockyer v. Andrade, a decision handed down on the same day as Ewing, denied relief under Habeus Corpus from a 50-year sentence imposed under California’s three-strikes law. Together, the cases effectively prevent future Eighth Amendment objections to non-capital sentences.   Sources Ewing v. California, 538 U.S. 11 (2003).Lockyer v. Andrade, 538 U.S. 63 (2003).